Choice of Software Essay

Below is a list of possible solutions to this assignment and with them there are the disadvantages and advantages. After thoroughly analysing these choices I will pick the best option. Database Advantages Using a database is a very simple option. Almost every employee without too much guidance could use the solution to enter data and carry out the basic operations. Using the database wizard, the data can be input into a table and the field types could be declared. Thus would make data entry effective and unsophisticated. The built-in features of a database will diminish the risk of errors during the input process. Adding a new record to a database would be simple as entering it underneath the previous record. Report can also be easily printed off from a database and are aesthetically pleasing in appearance already without the need of major modification. Data validation is also a key area of this project and a database already has the suitable data validation methods pre-set end embedded into the core of the database application. Disadvantages Functions such as the ability to carry out complex mathematical calculations are not necessarily included in a database application. To overcome this irregularity the database would have to be cross-linked to a spreadsheet application. This would of course multiply the workload and the size of the task, which would be pointless. Also, other features of a database are fairly limited. This would therefore mean that the database system could not be adequately adapted to tackle the problem. This solution could prove to be expensive. Commercial Software Advantages Commercial Software programs are generally simple and well suited to the problem at hand to some extent. They are easy to use and come with extensive help guides to modify the functions and utilities to suit the and help the end user and also include suitable training materials and tasks for IT illiterates Disadvantages The costs of these Commercial Software programs are quite high. The features of these are not suitable for a task of this build and even with major modification would not be completely suitable and would be prone to error. Such programs do not have validation methods built-in and do not allow for addition of such Add-ons. This would be a stumbling block to the whole program and the quality of the program would suffer as a result. This solution could prove to be expensive. Spreadsheet System Advantages A spreadsheet System would be a more obvious solution. Such a spreadsheet would be able to be implemented with alleviation. The outstanding feature of a spreadsheet over the other options is the ability to enter and manipulate complex mathematical formulae and the ability to process numerical values without too much effort. All of the task could be completed within this one package without the need for integration with other programs and partial embedding extra programs. This can be implemented by the fact that the sheets can be linked to each other. Reports can be easily printed out via the macro feature of the spreadsheet. Disadvantages To be able to use the spreadsheet, the unwritten rules of manipulating formula within a spreadsheet have to be mastered. Exact placement of cells and macros would have to be recorded. The spreadsheet system layout is fairly difficult to follow. This solution could prove to be expensive. Bespoke Program Advantages The advantages of creating a bespoke program using a high level/imperative programming language is that the styles, functions and forms of the screens can be manipulated to suit the end users. The program would come with extensive help guides and instruction for the end users. The screens would de designed specifically using extensive research techniques to gather information for the program and to meet the users requirements and create a user-friendly interface. Behind this user-friendly interface, all of the required formulae and utilities could be implemented. The cost of creating a bespoke program is virtually none after purchasing the software to create such a program with its official license, which is a great advantage over the previous examples. Disadvantages The only obvious disadvantage to such a solution would be the time taken to complete the task. After the initial research and design period, the whole design and implementation of the program and extensive testing could take 3-4 months to be fully implemented. Online Web-Based Solution Advantages The advantages of using on online system is that the system does not have to be limited to one machine or a local network of computers but this accessibility can be enlarged and accessed all over the world by the right personnel. Security can be maintained my strenuous password and security checks and Internet I.P. addresses can be recorded and monitored. Integration of spreadsheets needs to be implemented into such a Web-Based Solution. Disadvantages If this solution were to be implemented, it would be a very foolish decision. The fact that it can be accessed all over the world maybe appealing at first, but what if the security of the website is overcome and the marks of hundreds if not thousands of students could be modified by a lone teenager with a bit of effort. This would bring the whole organisation into disrepute and affect the future of many students. Apart from the security concerns of this solution, the fact that it needs to be linked to a spreadsheet so that calculations can be carried out successfully is an unpleasant feature to this exaggerated solution. Reports could be printed to an extent but the design would be very unprofessional if not amateurish as any user can do this. This solution could prove to be expensive. Paper-Based System Advantages There are no real advantages of a paper-based system apart from the fact that it is a method of recording the information Disadvantages The disadvantages include the inability to save information in a professional manner. Sheets could be misplaced. Only one user can use the system at once. Handwriting can be a problem to read and understand. Also mistakes can easily occur much to the despair of students. Chosen Solution One thing to realise is that no problem has a solution, which is 100% perfect. This is true for the problem at hand as well. As they all have some disadvantages it is the one, which has the most advantages and the least disadvantages. That seems obvious enough to me that is why I have chosen to create own program using the BESPOKE PROGRAM option. The reasons why have chosen this option is because it is a sensible option and it can be suitably implemented and designed to the users requirements as it can be manipulated and shaped to perfection. Also it is not that costly so it will keep the bank manager happy, which would not have been the case if I had gone with the other options! The layout of the forms could be suited to use the user and I would not have to add features, which are not required by the users. The feedback from the users can be used to design the type of inputs and outputs they require from the program and how they would like to enter the data and then output the information in the form of the reports. This also enables me to create a versatile and innovative solution to the problem. The reasons why I have not used some of the other possible solutions is some of them are not practical while others are surreal! The idea of incorporating two programs to work together with each other appears to be out of the question, as it would make life hard for the end user then the current methods they are using. Also some of the solutions suggest features, which could affect the integrity of the data within the organisation and allow it to be prone to hacking and malicious damage from external sources. Other solutions do not have the necessary features to carry out this task. This is why I have eliminated these solutions when considering which solution to use and the only one that seemed practical would be the BESPOKE PROGRAM option.

Sentence and Verbal Communication

3. 1 Work File ReviewDetour for Effective Verbal CommunicationDirections: Review the sentences below. Practice writing the sentences into â€Å"I† statements by using the â€Å"I† statement patterns provided below. After you feel confident you understand the concept of â€Å"I† statements, proceed to the assignment area and take the 3. 1 Effect Verbal Communication online quiz. Please use black ink. â€Å"I† Statement Patterns I feel†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ when you†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. because I†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. I think†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. when you†¦. because II need†¦. for you†¦. because IExample:A. â€Å"You† had better not cheat on that test! † (â€Å"You† statement)B. I feel angry when you cheat because I have to work hard for my grades. (â€Å"I† statement)1. â€Å"You always interrupt me! † I feel ____________________when you interrupt me, because I_________________.2. â€Å"You won't listen to me, because you are always talking on the phone with her! † I think ______________when you are always talking on the phone with her, because I ______________________________.3. â€Å"You'd better straighten up or you'll be looking for someone else to date! † I feel ________________________________when you act that way because I ________________.4. â€Å"You are always telling me that I never clean my room, but I do clean it! † I need for you to ________________________because I____________________.5. â€Å"You never let me go out with my friends, Mom! † I think __________________when you won’t allow me to go with my friends, because I ___________________.6. â€Å"You never seem to listen to me. I'm trying to tell you about my day in school and all you do is watch TV. Why can't you ever pay any attention to me? † I feel ________________when you watch TV, because I ______________________.7. â€Å"You are always late for practice. † I need for you to ______________________, because I ______________________.8. â€Å"You must let me use the car Saturday night, Dad! † I need __________________, because I___________________.

Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 32

Personal Statement Example My love for science placed me in a good position in class as an excellent student with high levels of innovativeness. I have participated in a number of conferences, workshops, and symposiums to further my knowledge in the field and create networks with other professionals. Based on the fact that I’m greatly motivated and inspired to develop and grow as a professional mechanical engineer, it has become necessary for me to further my skills. A master’s degree will give more competitiveness and place me in a better position in the professional. From my experiences at China Southern Airline, I noticed that there is a deficiency in aviation mechanics in regard to the manner in which inspections are carried out. Given an opportunity to further my skills in this field, I would like to venture further into this field and provide possible solutions that will improve the industry. The University of Washington is a reputable institution of higher learning known for its competitiv e graduate. In particular, the University’s Mechanical Engineering Department is one of the leading faculties in the institution. It has about 235 students taking various courses whereby 153 of them are full-time students while the rest are part-time students. The institution is known for its engagement in vigorous research and student’s career development. Based on these positive attributes of the institution, it remains my most preferred institution for taking my master’s degree program in mechanical engineering.

Strategic Information System Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategic Information System - Research Paper Example However, a good number of organizations continue to face great challenges in their attempts to integrate information technologies and in their efforts to improve on decision making and sharing of information. These challenges can be attributed to the fact that in the event of the design and implementation of the system, most companies lay more emphasis on the role and function of information system and less attention to the company’s structure and processes of the firm. It is worth noting that a greater percentage of information system failures arise not because of technology but because less concentration is paid on organizational aspects such as practises and processes. This paper seeks to review information theories and their significant role in understanding information systems in management of organisations. It will further seek a deeper understanding of laws governing information systems with particular attention to enforcement and use of the information systems in the U nited Kingdom. Finally, a reassessment on information system control will be conducted. To undertake this study, it is important to review various information theories. ... ciples and practices of a management in the daily activities of a business firm with a desire and passion to achieve set goals and with a mission to minimize expenses while maximizing returns and make huge returns for the company. â€Å"Business management theory entails the use of resources such as human labour financial technology and natural resources† (Hunter 2009). It is important to note that proper allocation of resources is vital in order to achieve utmost productivity for the business. Business management theory involves the analysis and evaluation of the business activities by the managerial authority with an objective of making an effective decision that will help contribute to the progress of the business. Decision making involves scheduling, organizing, setting course and controlling. The skills play a major role in the development and progress of a business. All these skills helps in the management and formulating new strategies that helps to achieve better goals together in addition to evaluation of performance to a set objective and supervision and control of resources such as workers in order to accomplish the business aim. Socio-technical systems theory â€Å"Social-technical systems theory views an organization as having a duty to perform a task whose objectives can best be achieved if the social, fiscal and technical aspects are mutually optimized† (porter 1998). Under this approach seven concepts are linked. Organizations should be viewed as co-dependent socio-technical structure. The theory utilizes interactive technical and social aspects; this implies that in drafting the structure of an organization both the technical and social aspects must be put into consideration. It is vital to note that where technology alone is put under consideration

Thinking about literature review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Thinking about literature review - Assignment Example Technology and educational change have led to the rise of NBLT, which uses internet hence; increasing literacy in the information. However, Postman (1993) condemns that use of computers for having led to lose of confidence in human judgement and subjectivity. Nevertheless, the invention of internet has enabled students to use the Web for their research. Indisputably, a majority of students use the internet to begin their research assignment (Chen et al., 2010). The distance students are not able to reach their various libraries in order to access the books with relevant information (Chen et al., 2010). These students therefore get the information for research work from the internet. Neil Postman (1993) argues that technology has a monopoly of power in our society especially given that the society no longer use technology as a support system but because it is shaped by it. Postman argues that technology in communication affects the education as well as monopolizing reading habits of the youth. Postman (1993) adds that technology has led to information chaos besides cultural changes especially through printing and broadcasting. Even though the use of the internet has led information literacy, Postman argues that invention of technology has disadvantages too (Postman,

Construction Safety Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Construction Safety - Coursework Example OSHA guidelines in many states act as mere guidelines and not the law as construction accidents increase as time goes by. This has caused many states e.g. Massachusetts and Connecticut to have in place stricter guidelines that highly follow OSHA rules or supersede them. Furthermore, these states ensure that the OSHA rules are followed to the letter e.g. the 10 hr-OSHA training (Ireland, 2006). As it has been seen trenching is an area that requires huge attention as fatalities and injuries are alarmingly high. Trenching has many regulations as to safety of the workers but they are hardly followed by construction firms. The case of Robert Harrell in Texas and Martin Samaniego in California are a clear proof of how neglected OSHA guidelines are. Investigations to these cases revealed that little had been done to protect these excavators from caving in or collapsing of the trenches they were working in. These are just but two fatality cases in two dozens reported yearly in the United States. Of importance to note is that more than 1000 cases of collapsed trenches are reported annually with non-fatal injuries (Ireland, 2006). The biggest issue that concerns safety in trench-related constructions is lack of enforcement of laid down regulations or guidelines. It is sad to note that in 2004 inspections in such sites by OSHA officials proved this fact. Around 90 percent of the inspected trench sites had no protective systems in place exposing the workers to immense danger of fatalities or injuries in case of cave-ins or collapse (Ireland, 2006). The remedial action that has been in force for quite a long time is the fining system. This shows that this system has faults or loopholes that are being taken advantage of by the contractors. For this reason some firms e.g. Morrilton and Koontz Electric Co. are known to disregard OSHA rules and enforce stiffer ones in their constructions (Ireland, 2006). Although sloping,

GE coursework Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

GE coursework - Case Study Example Welch created the culture of the company in his own image. His philosophy that good leaders create a vision for the company helped him to motivate the management to put optimum performance in their operations. This culture has been made possible by uniting different cultural forces across the globe. The success of the company can also be attributed to its positive stance towards diversity. Any company that fails to take into account the values and culture of the people in the environment in which it operates is bound to fall. However, GE has managed to take a positive approach towards diversity across the whole globe. It specialises on technology based businesses such as semiconductors and radio stations. These products have high demand across the globe and it can be seen that any company that specialise in technical products is likely to attract many customers Its digitization process such as the use of the internet has also positively contributed to its success. The internet has revolutionised the business landscape during the contemporary period and this has also contributed towards the success of GE in its global and regional

Managing Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Managing Diversity - Essay Example (2008) Managing Diversity; the business case; London; CIPD] In this age of globalization, there is much controversy on the coming together of all kinds of people for a common purpose. Diversity is slowly becoming a common feature in schools, workplaces and communities. Due to this development, a lot of issues crop up such as acceptance of different races and cultures, sexual preferences, educational qualifications and changes in practices previously viewed as established norms. In the workplace, it takes various strategies to facilitate people from various backgrounds to work together towards the same goals. Motivation of people must be one strong quality of a great manager. The concept of diversity has been broadened to include all â€Å"individuals who bring unique perspectives or outlooks to the organization† (Schakelford, 2004, p.53). That means, it not only includes the traditional categories of race and gender, but also people with disabilities, various sexual orientations, and other non-traditional categories considered having â€Å"diversity of thought† or those from different disciplines, college degrees, socio-economic backgrounds, etc. It was Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. who inspired the concept of diversity when he advocated that people should be judged by their character, not by the color of their skin. This propelled lawmakers to come up with laws that provide equal opportunity to all (Mor Barak, 2000). These laws have been designed protect anyone from being discriminated against by reason of sex, marital status, ethnic or national origin, color, race, nationality, age, disability, religion, and differing terms of employment, including pay for jobs of equal value. â€Å"Equal opportunity† is a means by which a person receives equal access in society. â€Å"Equal opportunities approach† is premised on the principle that all people can avail of

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 18

History - Essay Example The ideologies of the movement would not have gained impetus if the print media had not yet flourished, which promoted a renewed interest in the discovery of knowledge especially among the elites. One of the founding centers of the Enlightenment was France. Voltaire (1694–1778) was a French radical thinker who epitomized the Enlightenment ideals of freedom of speech and rational thought over blind faith in religion. Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755) was another Enlightenment figure who revolutionized political discourse. He praised the republic as the best form of government and paved way for the division of the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. Diderot was the architect of the Encyclopedia which was published over a period of twenty one years (1751–1772). Though the Enlightenment ideals originated in France it spread to different parts of Europe and the world. Each country saw the emergence of a bunch of radical thinkers in various fields. In England it was epitomized by Isaac Newton. John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume were the other exponents of the Enlightenment in England. In America the writings of Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin created waves. It encouraged a widespread thirst for knowledge among the elites and the cultivation of scientific rationalism. Many of these philosophes set the mood for a tremendous intellectual and cultural revolution which left no stone in the society unturned. In the essay let us look at the political, economic, and scientific ripples created by the Enlightenment across the world. Many leaders of the American Revolution like Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Paine were greatly influenced by the English and French Enlightenment thought, especially John Locke’s idea of liberalism. The Enlightenment clearly defied the absolutism of monarchy and upheld democracy. The common man was tired of being suppressed under the absolutist monarchs and they were influenced by the teachings

Family life education - stepfamily Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Family life education - stepfamily - Assignment Example During the workshop, fliers come into play as handouts present a summary of the information to participants. In addition, visual aids employed assist the teaching process. Exercises and demonstrations allow the participants of the program to rehearse some techniques taught in the program on how members of the stepfamily ought to treat each other. The workshop’s lesson plan involves an introduction to the step family structure. Following the introduction, the program outlines challenges facing the system of blended families and offers various solutions. In addition, the workshop highlights various ways of enhancing peace and growth of a blended family. The inspiration of this program is the various problems facing stepfamilies and the need to assist such families within the community. The program’s conclusion comes after a day of analyzing the various problems facing stepfamilies. The program hopes to see such family members interact and get a platform to share their views openly. In addition, it targets to equip them with skill to co-exist together and most importantly adapt to the new family setting. With patience, respect and love, members of stepfamilies ought not to live in trouble. Instead, the family experiences love, peace and all members grow equally close. This only happens if each member gets to voice his or her issues without facing judgment. A family is a social unit that aggregates people related to each other through blood, marriage and or adoption. Family systems are diverse due to the different compositions of family units in today’s society. Among these systems exists the stepfamily setting. A stepfamily is a unit of related people whereby either one or both the adults in the new marriage or relationship brings into the family their children from a former relationship. (Gina, Jeanne & Lawrence, 2013) A simple stepfamily only involves one member of the couple having pre-existing children. However, according to Papernow,

Maintaining Race and Ethnic Identity Essay Example for Free

Maintaining Race and Ethnic Identity Essay The world we are living is very dynamic and exhibits various types of movements for both plants and animals including humans. History insinuates that man practiced considerable movements from one place to another since its first existence. This movement from one locality to another is referred to as migration. Migration can be 1) internal which is within the country, state or continent and maybe 2) international which crosses boundaries to other country, state or continent. With the development of technology and globalization, international migration continues to increase over the past decades. In 1960, there were 76 million international migrants and increased to 191 million international migrants in 2006. It was noted that a relatively high migration rate is from 1985 to 1990. Generally, ethnic identity diversifies according to the length of distance and therefore international migration increases the gap of connectivity in relation to ethnicity. Human migration can be classified as permanent or semi-permanent depending on their reasons which maybe voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary migration is generally practiced in search for a â€Å"greener pasture† and satisfaction of one’s preferences. This includes employment, climate, food supply, self development like education, religion and family. Involuntary migration, on the other hand, includes migration due to calamity, political conditions like when in war or in exile, slave trades or human trafficking and ethnic cleansing. (Boyd, 2003) Refugees can eventually be immigrants. Based from Human Migration Guide of the National Geographic Society, â€Å"A refugee is a person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. † (What is Human Migration? 2005) . This involuntary migration results to a hefty impact on self identity rather than voluntary migration. Human migration has taken a major participation in shaping and honing the present status of the population. It allows the diffusion and combination of the structures, cultures, beliefs, ideas, principles, religion, and other traits which results to the modification of each others traits. Rejection of the integration, however, sometimes results to conflict that may cause decline of socio-cultural capital and values. Although immigrants tend to maintain their ethnic identity and cultures at home, the children of the second, third generation is common or comparable with generations of the host country. This means that these generations are highly acculturated to the host community and country. Intentional or not intentional, this is in response to their quest for belongingness. On the other hand, some immigrants give high regard to their culture which is linked to nationalism. Some may even believe that there is no other culture than theirs and fail to recognize cultures of other immigrants within the community. Some host countries like Western European nations and Japan are deeply concern about the effect of these immigrants on their culture and ethnic identity which can be compromised. Oftentimes, conflict such as racial discrimination exist and become the subject of debates. Different countries have their own policies regarding immigration. Other countries begin to recognize immigrants with different race and cultures. They are respected in preserving their respective cultures and interact peacefully within one nation. This official policy is known as multiculturalism and can be seen in Canada, Australia and the U. K. It is also called as the cultural mosaic of different ethnic groups. Nevertheless, immigrant groups are still encouraged to learn the language of the host country and participate in the activities of the major society including labor force. However, this policy gained many criticisms such as it divides the people even there is a need to be united on certain social issues and justices. Debates on immigration law and racism are still on-going issues of every host country.

Philosophy Reflection Essay Example for Free

Philosophy Reflection Essay This was my first major introduction into the study of philosophy, and I can honestly say that it has had a major impact on my belief system. Many of my views have been changed and my overall view on life is much different than it was five months ago. To me, the two most interesting works were the Tao and The Minds I. The Tao describes a really interesting way of life. Of all the philosophies weve read, it is the simplest and most beautiful. Instead of scanning for hidden meanings and analyzing all parts of life, Laozi just tells us to live life. Do no more than you have to do, but do everything you have to do. He tells us not to worry about death and just live life. I honestly think very simple and peaceful way of living can bring us much more happiness than we have now in our current society. However, the only way it can be implemented is if everyone follows the Tao, and that is nearly impossible in our current society. We should honestly try to live simpler lives and see the beauty of everyday things. The other work that really impacted me was The Minds I. Im not sure if it qualifies as a single work, but there were several important themes that really interested me and changed some of my views. The section that really interested me the most was the section describing intelligent machines and animals, and their relationship to humans. I had always considered humans superior to animals due to their intelligence and ability to communicate. I never thought too much about the idea of intelligent animals and even machines and their relationship to humans. An intelligent machine or animal that can communicate definitely would be on the same evolutionary level as humans, and thus there could be no way to justify creating an intelligent robotic servant or helper without harkening back to the ideology that prompted slavery. Also, destruction of this machine or animal would be equivalent to murder. However, I still so no moral objection to creating an intelligent robot, as long as we give it its own freedom, just as we would to one of our children. Its may be considered playing God, but if we are his greatest creations, we should have the right to test our limits. Only through a recreation of consciousness done and understood by us can we begin to understand our own consciousness as well as ourselves. I had never really thought about technology in this way and never seriously questioned the origin of my consciousness, so the Minds I really forced me to think about life in a different way. Throughout the term, I not only changed and reconsidered many of my views; I discovered things that I subconsciously believed without really thinking about it. My beliefs not only changed, I discovered beliefs that I never knew I had. Some of these views surfaced when reading certain works like The Mysterious Stranger and Nietzsche. Although these two works didnt change my deep-set views that much, it was interesting to see my instinctual beliefs get challenged. I discovered I was a pretty moderate thinker, but these readings caused many of my views on life to change. However, I still disagreed with many of the views expressed in class discussions with certain works, like the Tao. But then I realized that the Tao is designed to have different meanings to everyone who reads it so they could find their own way of life and thus doesnt lend itself well to class discussions. I saw that the way philosophy has evolved over the years mirrors the way society has changed throughout history. The older philosophies that weve read, like the Tao and Plato work, seem to try to tell us how to live our lives to get the most happiness and satisfaction out of it, and how to find the way or see the light. The more modern philosophies seem to disregard the idea of a true path and tell us how to live in the best way, but they dont guarantee happiness from it. The most interesting pieces for me were a mix of the modern and older philosophies, like Nietzsche and Socrates Apology (I guess because he lived in a ancient but modern society). Even though they were completely different and I completely disagreed with one of them, they were much more compelling to me. One important thing that I learned is that I hate reading about something that I agree on, I dislike having my views proven?by another writer and rather read new ideas and opinions. From all the texts read and discussions weve had this year, its hard to highlight just three things that I learned. One of the most stimulating texts to me was The Circular Ruins. Especially when read right after Is God a Taoist, this simple story made me reconsider all my beliefs on existence and God. Just like the main character was, we are kept in the dark about our condition, where we came from and how we exist. We claim an all-mighty God as our creator, and call ourselves superior beings in his image. However, whose to say that we are not just insignificant nothings, created by another being of no importance. Would that make us less real and important? From this story I learned to stop attaching importance and purpose to everything I do. Maybe there is a reason we dont know where we come from; perhaps we dont want to know. Another important lesson came from Reservation Blues. The main characters all had to deal with finding a cultural identity while trying to escape the trap of the white man. The only ones who made it out were the ones who had a strong cultural identity. They knew themselves and identified with their past before they attempted to escape the reservation. Victor and Junior either tried to ignore their past or couldnt come to terms with their heritage. They tried to escape before they were ready, and couldnt cope with the failure. The books point, despite the suicide and Victors destruction, was amazingly positive, it showed that if you come to terms with your past and yourself you can overcome any obstacle set against you, but you must have this understanding or you will destroy yourself. From The Razors Edge I learned a lot about the purpose of life from each of the vastly different characters. At first, it seems like the point of the story is that there is a difference between what we want and what makes us happy and fulfilled. Suzanne, Gray and Elliot all got what they wanted yet all seem to live unhappy, unfulfilled lives. Further inspection showed that they all are living the life that they fully wanted and expected to live, and they are perfectly content. Isabel wanted both Larry and high society type of life, and thus is disappointed with her life because she couldnt have both. Larry didnt know what he wanted out of life, so he took basically a timeout from the real world, went into seclusion and discovered what he wanted out of life. Now he, knowing full well what he wants, is the most satisfied of all the characters. The lesson to be learned is that happiness is completely relative, and thus you cannot call anyone a failure unless he considers himself one. Also, its all right to take some time out of the real world and relax, take a step back and see what you really want to do next. In the end, this class really has changed my views on the best kind of life. I still believe that you need to live the type of life that will make you the happiest and most satisfied, but I dont think that most people know what type of life that is. If you dont have a passion, dont force yourself into any profession. Explore the world and find something that really interests you otherwise you will get forced into a miserable life that you hate. If you have a passion, you have to follow it. You have to come in terms with who you are; understand and remember your past and childhood. We have to examine our lives to discover what we really want, then try to find it. We must simplify our actions, and we have to stop overanalyzing others actions and words. We have to lose our ego and sense of shame, and stop caring what people think of you. This is the simplest way to live and live happily, without having to adjust your actions to fit what other people expect from you. We have to stop fearing death and keep on living life in the happiest possible way. This will be the happiest, simplest and best life for everyone.

Design Strategy of Obamas Campaign

Design Strategy of Obamas Campaign Introduction To what extent did the design strategy of Obamas campaign contribute to his mass popularity and victory in 2008 followed by a radial shift in public opinion by the end of 2010? Research methods Interview the creative director of the campaign to gain a concise overview of what was required of the design team. Find out any specific communication strategies that might have been imposed on them and explore the reasons behind their design choices (colors, fonts, use of imagery, layouts etc). Investigate if any strategic marketing techniques were used to promote Obama the same way a mass consumption product would be sold. Research all journals, dissertations and articles relating to the topic of political campaign strategies, design strategies, and communication techniques. Search news articles for pundit reviews and opinions of campaign success and current backlash. Conduct a thorough analysis of the Designing Obama book that contains the entire design strategy used by Scott Thomas. Limitations of study Due to the fact that this is a very recent event the amount of detailed and concise publications based on the topic are scarce. The bulk of the research will have to rely on Internet sources of news articles, pundit blogs and a search for relevant dissertations published by the academic community. Organization of the dissertation To what extent did the design strategy of Obamas campaign contribute to his mass popularity and victory in 2008 followed by a radial shift in public opinion by the end of 2010? Answered via the following arguments: Social landscape of America conducive to political advertising Cult of personality formation via harnessing of mass media Misleading and subliminal influence of design Expectations of the public too high from ambiguous and contradictory communication Main Body Setting the scene America in 2008 was not the beacon of hope it had once been. There was rising unemployment and a financial crisis that had brought the countrys economy crashing down. Poverty was increasing rapidly and people were loosing homes due to foreclosures. The country was massively unhappy that America was still participating in the Afghanistan conflict and to top it all, there had been 8 years under the Bush administration that had seen its lowest approval ratings of all time (below 40%). Running parallel to this was an America that had become so utterly saturated by marketing that this was one of the only facets of communication people would respond to (research to prove this?). Describe the average american experience? (how often they see ads, how well they respond). The huge obsession with celebrity culture in combination with the growing global social networks had made it too easy to give rise to a cult of personality. America was begging for change at this point, which left them susceptible to intelligent marketing and design strategies. It was against this backdrop that in the run up to the 2008 Presidential Election support and enthusiasm for Obama was increasing at a dramatic rate culminating in a frenzy by the time of his victory and inauguration in January 2009. Building trust through consistent design From the very beginning of the campaign the design team knew they would have to subdue the public perception of Obamas inexperience via his visual presentation. The strategy used was to implement the timelesshes already president feel (vimeo) into his brand image. The use of consistency was vital as one thing that design can solve with consistency is [to] establisha sense of balanceit can also reallygive the visual impression that hes incredibly experienced. (vimeo). fig1. Expert use of consistency in the visual communication makes Obama seem organized, experienced and competent. Thomas (2010, p. 78) Because of their evocative power, design and branding elements can create a stable bond between voters and the candidatewe wanted to elicit the feeling that he was a familiar figure whose attributes and values they could relate to and trust. Talk about logo, consistent branding, Thomas (2010) You can use good design and to a certain degree it blurs the lines a bit. Another strategy to distract from Obamas inexperience was to emphasize how historic the campaign was. Rather than simply stating this in the communication the entire aesthetic was designed around old archival materials. We wanted to pull from imagery of the past to communicate the historic nature of the campaign (vimeo). fig2. Certain information was designed using real historical documents found in local archives for an authentic vintage feel. This strategy not only highlighted the importance of the campaign but also using imagery that resembled historical documents, like the original declaration of independence, elicited a sense of patriotism and American sentiment, which could have a strong subliminal effect. Obamas cult of personality A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media, propaganda, or other methods, to create an idealized and heroic public image (Wikipedia, 2008). By the end of Obamas campaign it was clear that this was beginning to become reality. Imagery of Obama appeared in galleries, on billboards and around the city as street art or graffiti, the vast majority of it in full support of him. In addition there were huge varieties of Obama merchandise being sold by independent street vendors all over the country. Social networks were buzzing with his name, independent bloggers were watching his every move and grassroots events, using the same Obama visual design for flyers and posters, were happening on a daily basis. Even though the visual tapestry of Obama that had been weaved across the country was a collaborative effort from hundreds of individual contributors outside the reach of brand control, it still maintained high levels of visual consistency. This was due to the highly effi cient and transparent branding principles that required only the use of the Obama logo and typeface to make any visual production appear part of the overall marketing strategy. To a rock solid and seasoned democratic or republican supporter the choice of political candidate would still have been easy. But for a younger or less convicted voter with no solid viewpoint (research suggests there are more and more of these people) they could be susceptible to communication based on persuasion in which voters, lacking enduring political convictions, are induced to support a particular candidate or party at election time. (Swanson, 2004). This would be particularly effective given the cult of personality bestowed upon Obama by the media coverage of him and from his rock star status fuelled by regular endorsements from celebrities and musicians. fig3. Obama featured in a music video by the black eyed peas that turned his slogan into an anthem It is possible that due to this Obama frenzy it had become fashionable to be an Obama supporter and the thought of not voting for a candidate that was fresh, young, creative, energetic, and whose very ideals were adorning the city, seemed worthy of ridicule. Cause youll be real embarrassed if he won and you wasnt down with it. (Chris Rock) Leverage of technology to increase reach Vote for Obama making the voting process easy should in practice enable all the people with clear convictions to vote for the candidate they know they want. In reality it allows undecided voters to choose a candidate they may not really believe in but vote anyway via peer pressure, cult of personality, ease of use wht not? This results in inaccurate assumptions of public opinion being drawn from the poll. Transparency of brand all brand assets available for download so anyone can create visuals that resemble the official Obama brand material. This creates a sense of solidarity with the brand. And the subsequent result is an impression that the brand is literally everywhere as the entire grassroots movement is branded and appears to be part of the overall design strategy. Boundary destruction versatility of the logo allows it to be tailored to any group who want to be associated with Obama or simply show their support. The broken boundaries create a sense of solidarity and add to the impression of world wide brand saturation. A False Revolution In order to allow the global community of artists to contribute, the campaign team initiated the Artists For Obama poster series. According to Thomas (2010, p. 127) [the] idea was to invite artists to participate in the creation of a new kind of campaign poster, one that would be the expression of the individual artist rather than a reiteration of campaign materials. The first contribution to this initiative was a poster by Shepard Fairey and to many, his invitation seemed counter intuitive. He is a well-known street artist who has built his fame on defacing public buildings and creating work with huge anti-establishment connotations. His campaign poster has been deemed the most iconic image of Obama ever created, yet its unclear if the visual of Obama above the word HOPE was intended to be ironic. fig4. A contrast between Shepard Faireys previous anti-establishment aesthetic and the Obama poster. To most people this poster symbolized the revolution that was coming but considering the lost enthusiasm following Obamas presidency the question is if this powerful image created a false anticipation of revolution in the minds of the American people. Thomas (2010) Ive kind of heard that tone, whereShepard Faireys posterhad this very anti-establishment aesthetic that could have played into the minds of those that thought this was going to be a revolutionchanging Washington DC from the inside out. Since the Obama frenzy has subsided it is clear that the revolution people were hoping for hasnt happened. In an interview with the National Journal, Shepard Fairey commented on his plan to contribute work to help Obama in 2012 but stated he couldnt design the same Hope poster today, because the spirit of the Obama campaign hasnt carried over to the Obama presidency. (Madhani, 2010). Misleading and subliminal imagery In June 2008 the Obama design team created a seal to be displayed on his lectern that very closely resembled the Presidential seal. This caused controversy in the media and when Steven Heller ask Scott Thomas to name the most heated design battle of the campaign Thomas brought up the infamous à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“presidential seal debacle (Kessler, B. 2008). fig5. Obama in front of the controversial custom presidential seal with Latin slogan saying yes we can. Imagery such as Obama standing in front of a presidential looking seal before he is president can have subtle subliminal effects. It implies that he has already won before the election has taken place and can be a powerful persuasive device if used strategically. Sol Sender, the designer of the Obama logo suggested although the presidential seal was used by the campaign only briefly,  seeing Obama-the-candidate standing behind that familiar regal  eagle had a lingering effect  in the minds of voters (Kessler, B. 2008). In addition to this the voters have been subject to rock solid consistency in the visual communication that has solidified the Obama brand deep in their subconscious minds. Ambiguous communication From the outset of the campaign the three keywords used to inspire the nation were Hope, Change and Progress, which were the three ideas that the American people were so desperately seeking in 2008 Thomas (2010, p. 78)our strategy would not have worked if Obamas message hadnt rung so true and hadnt resonated so deeply with the American public. These words however inspiring are somewhat ambiguous unless the exact implementation of each is explained but this was rarely the case when used by Obama. Regardless of this, they became woven into the visual language of the campaign to the point that the word Hope had become synonymous with Obama. A news reporter commented about an Obama rally he witnessed Obama almost never got into specifics. It was change, change, save the country, change, yes we can, change (Wendel, J. 2008). people are VERY focused on Obama and dont really know much about what he stands for(Wendel, J. 2008). Conclusion Where are we now? A downward spiral of disappointment, anger and lost enthusiasm swiftly followed and continued to the end of 2010. Senate elections in November saw the Republicans taking back the House, and many of Obamas policies of Change were rejected by the American public (most notably the healthcare reform suffered a 59% opposition). In addition to this, his approval rating had fallen from 65% in 2009 to 45% in 2010. The reason for such a huge turnaround in public opinion after Obamas monumental success can be attributed to two possibilities. Either the American public developed and overzealous expectation of Obama and his intentions based on the strategic design of the campaign, or they were not as open to change as they seemed to imply. Either way it is clear that something must have caused this huge inversion to occur. Talk about how it is clear that design contributed to both a distorted view of what the public really wanted and how Obama was perceived to be something more than he actually was in reality. There were many Americans seduced by the feel good Madison Avenue campaign of Obama, but the trouble with hype is that after all the BS, you must be able to produce something, four years is a long time to run on hype'(flopping aces) Independents and Democrats are admitting to themselves that the Obama image [created] is nothing more than an allusion that they wanted to believe, against common sense. (flopping aces) the campaigns are now so intricate and so all consuming that the ability it takes to win a campaign is not the same skill set to govern and are we raising a generation of leaders that can win campaigns but not adequately govern? (john steward, daily show).

Essay --

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC) The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children is designed by Alan Kaufman and Nadeen Kaufman in 1983 for assessing mental processing and cognitive development in children. It was revised in 2004 as the KABC -II. First edition is used for children between the ages of 2,5 and 12,5 whereas the revised edition is used for children and adolescents between 3 and 18 years of age. There are two theoratical models in KABC-II. They are the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) psychometric model of broad and narrow abilities and Luria’s neuropsychological theory of processing. KABC-II consists of 18 subtests of two types: core and supplemantary. These subtests are grouped into 4 or 5 scales according to age and model. Luria’s model has Sequential Processing Scale, Simultaneous Processing Scale, Learning Ability and Planning Ability. CHC model has same scales but it renames them. They are Short Term Memory (Gsm), Visual Processing (Gv), Long Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr) and Fluid Reasoning (Gf) respectively. Also it has one more scale which name is Know...

Entering German Market :: essays research papers

During the last decade German economy is stagnating, or even decreasing. One of possible reasons is the lack of entrepreneurship in German companies. Old companies usually are too big and unwilling to change something inside, thus German government decided to support establishment of new small and medium enterprises. New agenda 2010 introduces the strategy for Germany to recover the economy and become even more competitive. In the article â€Å"Starting your business with subsidies† in Invest in Germany magazine is written that there are more than 3000 incentive programs available for investors. The program is financed by the federal government, the states and international organizations, including the European Union. The aid is available for business start-ups in a way of funding and consulting. Additional support is proposed to other investment, research and development, and training, as well as improve and protect the environment. The aid comes in the form of investment pr emiums, additional capital allowances, regional support and special credit programs. Subsidies are the main form of support. Bigger subsidies are applied for new – Eastern states and for other incentive areas. Incentive areas mean that economy there should be encouraged, industry is not as developed and investors need additional incentives to choose these areas but not more developed ones. Distribution of these subsidies is generally subject to approval by the European Union. One of the programs to finance investment is Joint Agreement program. Cash grants approved and paid to investors under this program during 1999 – 2001 were 8.6 billion euros, and the budget for 2002 – 2006 is 8.1 billion Euros (http://www.state.gov/e/eb/ifd/2005/42039.htm). All investors – local and foreign – are treated equally under the program, but financed sum depends on the region. The government has placed particular emphasis on investment promotion in the new states of the former East Germany and has offered a large number of incentives to promote economy in those areas. Business Guide in Invest in Germany (http://www.invest-in-germany.de/en/index.php?redirect=http://www.invest-in-germany.de/en/research/businessguide/index.php?topcat=20&cat=1063656685824246400&lang=en) lists those conditions as the most significant for cash grants under the Joint Agreement program: - Funds from the Joint Agreement are granted at the authorities’ discretion - Applications must be filed before the start of the investment - Investors must make a considerable contribution to the investment project from their own capital as proof of their commitment - Cash grants are subject to taxation - An investment period may take up to 36 months from the start of a project.

Graduation Speech :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Hi, my name is Mary Smith, and I want to welcome you all to the County High School graduation ceremony tonight. I came to County High School four years ago. As soon as I walked onto the campus I knew it was the right place for me. In fact if I were to describe CHS in one word it would be "family." Everyone here, students and staff, are the most understanding, supportive and encouraging group of people you could find. It is because of my "family" that I am graduating today. My journey to this day has been filled with many challenges. I dropped out of school thinking that I did not need a high school diploma to accomplish the things I wanted in life. That was a mistake. Finding myself behind in credits, I enrolled in FAHS hoping to get back on track. The foundation for success was here. But soon after, I became pregnant and left school again. I was able to return to school because of the daycare at FAHS. I was more motivated this time around to find my dream of graduating. But my road took another unexpected turn leaving me a teen mom now to two. Once again with the help of the FAHS daycare I returned to school With the support of my "family" my dream is becoming a reality. All of the other students here have stories of their own to tell. Stories of what brought them to FAHS, stories of what kept them here and stories of the obstacles they have had to overcome in their lives. They are about tragedy and triumph, success and failure and of will and determination to follow their dreams. It has been the dream of each and every student here tonight to graduate and that dream is finally coming true. To my fellow graduates, I encourage you to continue to dream big. Whatever your goal is in life - dream to the next level. Believe me when I tell you that you can go farther than you think you can go. People who fail to dream do so because they cannot believe their dreams will come true. Never stop dreaming. James Dean once said, "Dream as if you'll live forever. Live as if you'll die today." On behalf of my fellow graduates, I would like to extend a special thanks to the staff at FAHS. You had so much faith in all of us.

Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth

Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony Author(s): John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan Reviewed work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 83, No. 2 (Sep. , 1977), pp. 340-363 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/2778293 . Accessed: 25/01/2012 14:10 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jspJSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to American Journal of Sociology. http://www. jstor. orgInstitutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremonyl John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan Stanford University Many formal organizational structures arise as reflections of rationalized institutional rules. The elaboration of such rules in modern states and societies accounts in part for the expansion and increased complexity of formal organizational structures. Institutional rules function as myths which organizationsincorporate,gaining legitimacy, resources, stability, and enhanced survival prospects.Organizations whose structures become isomorphic with the myths of the institutional environment-in contrast with those primarily structured by the demands of technical production and exchange-decrease internal coordination and control in order to maintain legitimacy. Structures are decoupled from each other and from ongoing activities. In place of coordination, inspection, and evaluation, a logic of confidence and good faith is employed. Formal organizationsare generall y understood to be systems of coordinated and controlled activities that arise when work is embedded in complex networks of technical relations and boundary-spanningexchanges.But in modern societies formal organizational structures arise in highly institutionalized contexts. Professions, policies, and programs are created along with the products and services that they are understoodto producerationally. This permits many new organizations to spring up and forces existing ones to incorporatenew practices and procedures. That is, organizationsare driven to incorporate the practices and procedures defined by prevailing rationalizedconcepts of organizationalwork and institutionalized in society.Organizationsthat do so increase their legitimacy and their survival prospects, independent of the immediate efficacy of the acquired practices and procedures. Institutionalized products, services, techniques, policies, and programs function as powerful myths, and many organizations adopt them ce remonially. But conformity to institutionalized rules often conflicts sharply 1 Work on this paper was conducted at the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching (SCRDT) and was supported by the National Institute of Education (contract no. NE-C-00-3-0062). The views expressed here do not, of course, reflect NIE positions.Many colleagues in the SCRDT, the Stanford Organizations Training Program, the American Sociological Association's work group on Organizations and Environments, and the NIE gave help and encouragement. In particular, H. Acland, A. Bergesen, J. Boli-Bennett, T. Deal, J. Freeman, P. Hirsch, J. G. March, W. R. Scott, and W. Starbuck made helpful suggestions. 340 AJS Volume 83 Number 2 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony with efficiency criteria and, conversely, to coordinate and control activity in order to promote efficiency undermines an organization's ceremonial conformityand sacrificesits support and legitimacy.To maintain ceremonial conformity, o rganizationsthat reflect institutional rules tend to buffer their formal structures from the uncertainties of technical activities by becoming loosely coupled, building gaps between their formal structures and actual work activities. This paper argues that the formal structures of many organizations in postindustrial society (Bell 1973) dramatically reflect the myths of their institutional environments instead of the demands of their work activities.The first part describesprevailing theories of the origins of formal structures and the main problem the theories confront. The second part discusses an alternative source of formal structures:myths embeddedin the institutional environment. The third part develops the argument that organizations reflecting institutionalized environments maintain gaps between their formal structures and their ongoing work activities. The final part summarizes by discussing some researchimplications. Throughout the paper, institutionalized rules are distin guished sharply from prevailing social behaviors.Institutionalized rules are classifications built into society as reciprocated typifications or interpretations (Berger and Luckmann 1967, p. 54). Such rules may be simply taken for granted or may be supported by public opinion or the force of law (Starbuck 1976). Institutions inevitably involve normative obligations but often enter into social life primarily as facts which must be taken into account by actors. Institutionalization involves the processesby which social processes, obligations, or actualities come to take on a rulelike status in social thought and action.So, for example, the social status of doctor is a highly institutionalized rule (both normative and cognitive) for managing illness as well as a social role made up of particular behaviors, relations, and expectations. Research and development is an institutionalized category of organizationalactivity which has meaning and value in many sectors of society, as well as a collection of actual research and development activities. In a smaller way, a No Smoking sign is an institution with legal status and implications, as well as an attempt to regulate smoking behavior.It is fundamental to the argument of this paper that institutional rules may have effects on organizational structures and their implementationin actual technical work which are very different from the effects generated by the networks of social behavior and relationshipswhich compose and surrounda given organization. PREVAILING THEORIES OF FORMAL STRUCTURE A sharp distinction should be made between the formal structure of an organization and its actual day-to-day work activities. Formal structure is 341American Journal of Sociology a blueprint for activities which includes, first of all, the table of organization: a listing of offices, departments, positions, and programs. These elements are linked by explicit goals and policies that make up a rational theory of how, and to what end, ac tivities are to be fitted together. The essence of a modern bureaucratic organization lies in the rationalized and impersonal character of these structural elements and of the goals that link them.One of the central problems in organization theory is to describe the conditions that give rise to rationalized formal structure. -In conventional theories, rational formal structure is assumed to be the most effective way to coordinate and control the complex relational networks involved in modern technical or work activities (see Scott 1975 for a review). This assumption derives from Weber's (1930, 1946, 1947) discussions of the historical emergence of bureaucraciesas consequencesof economic markets and centralized states. Economic markets place a premium on rationality and coordination.As markets expand, the relational networks in a given domain become more complex and differentiated, and organizationsin that domain must manage more internal and boundary-spanning interdependencies. Such factors as size (Blau 1970) and technology (Woodward 1965) increasethe complexity of internal relations, and the division of labor among p organizationsincreasesboundary-spanning roblems (Aiken and Hage 1968; Freeman 1973;Thompson 1967). Because the need for coordinationincreases under these conditions, and because formally coordinated work has competitive advantages, organizations with rationalized formal structures tend to develop.The formation of centralized states and the penetration of societies by political centers also contribute to the rise and spreadof formal organization. When the relational networks involved in economic exchange and political managementbecome extremely complex,bureaucraticstructuresare thought to be the most effective and rational means to standardize and control subunits. Bureaucratic control is especially useful for expanding political centers, and standardizationis often demanded by both centers and peripheral units (Bendix 1964, 1968).Political cente rs organize layers of offices that manage to extend conformity and to displace traditional activities throughout societies. a The problem. revailingtheoriesassumethatthe coordination nd controlof P h activityare the criticaldimensionson whichformal organizations avesucceeded in the modern world. This assumption is based on the view that organizations function according to their formal blueprints: coordination is routine, rules and proceduresare followed, and actual activities conform to the prescriptions of formal structure. But much of the empirical research on organizations casts doubt on this assumption.An earlier generation of researchers concluded that there was a great gap between the formal and the informal organization (e. g. , Dalton 1959; Downs 1967; Homans 1950). A related 342 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony observation is that formal organizations are often loosely coupled (March and Olsen 1976; Weick 1976): structural elements are only loosely linked to each other and to activities, rules are often violated, decisions are often unimplemented, or if implemented have uncertain consequences, technologies are of problematic efficiency, and evaluation and inspection systems are ubverted or renderedso vague as to provide little coordination. Formal organizations are endemic in modern societies. There is need for an explanation of their rise that is partially free from the assumption that, in practice, formal structures actually coordinate and control work. Such an explanation should account for the elaboration of purposes, positions, policies, and procedural rules that characterizes formal organizations, but must do so without supposingthat these structuralfeatures are implemented in routine work activity. INSTITUTIONAL SOURCES OF FORMAL STRUCTUREBy focusing on the management of complex relational networks and the exercise of coordination and control, prevailing theories have neglected an alternative Weberian source of formal structure: the legiti macy of rationalized formal structures. In prevailing theories, legitimacy is a given: assertions about bureaucratization rest on the assumption of norms of rationality (Thompson 1967). When norms do play causal roles in theories of bureaucratization,it is because they are thought to be built into modern societies and personalities as very general values, which are thought to facilitate formal organization.But norms of rationality are not simply general values. They exist in much more specific and powerful ways in the rules, understandings, and meanings attached to institutionalized social structures. The causal importance of such institutions in the process of bureaucratizationhas been neglected. Formalstructures are not only creaturesof their relationalnetworksin the social organization. In modern societies, the elements of rationalizedformal structure are deeply ingrained in, and reflect, widespreadunderstandingsof social reality.Many of the positions, policies, programs, and pro ceduresof modern organizations are enforced by public opinion, by the views of important constituents, by knowledge legitimated through the educational system, by social prestige, by the laws, and by the definitions of negligence and prudence used by the courts. Such elements of formal structure are manifestations of powerful institutional rules which function as highly rationalized myths that are binding on particular organizations. In modern societies, the myths generatingformal organizationalstructure have two key properties.First, they are rationalized and impersonal prescriptions that identify various social purposes as technical ones and specify in a rulelike way the appropriatemeans to pursue these technical purposes 343 American Journal of Sociology rationally (Ellul 1964). Second, they are highly institutionalized and thus in some measure beyond the discretion of any individual participant or organization. They must, therefore,be taken for granted as legitimate, apart from evaluations of their impact on work outcomes. Many elements of formal structure are highly institutionalized and function as myths.Examplesincludeprofessions,programs,and technologies: Large numbers of rationalized professions emerge (Wilensky 1965; Bell 1973). These are occupations controlled, not only by direct inspection of work outcomes but also by social rules of licensing, certifying, and schooling. The occupations are rationalized, being understood to control impersonal techniques rather than moral mysteries. Further, they are highly institutionalized: the delegation of activities to the appropriate occupations is socially expected and often legally obligatory over and above any calculations of its efficiency.Many formalized organizational programs are also institutionalized in society. Ideologies define the functions appropriateto a business-such as sales, production, advertising, or accounting; to a university-such as instruction and research in history, engineering, and li terature; and to a hospital-such as surgery, internal medicine, and obstetrics. Such classifications of organizational functions, and the specifications for conducting each function, are prefabricated formulae available for use by any given organization. Similarly, technologies are institutionalized and become myths binding on organizations.Technical procedures of production, accounting, personnel selection, or data processing become taken-for-granted means to accomplish organizational ends. Quite apart from their possible efficiency, such institutionalized techniques establish an organization as appropriate, rational, and modern. Their use displays responsibility and avoids claims of negligence. The impact of such rationalized institutional elements on organizations and organizing situations is enormous. These rules define new organizing situations, redefineexisting ones, and specify the means for coping rationally with each.They enable, and often require, participants to organize along prescribedlines. And they spread very rapidly in modern society as part of the rise of postindustrial society (Bell 1973). New and extant domains of activity are codifiedin institutionalizedprograms,professions,or techniques, and organizationsincorporatethe packaged codes. For example: The discipline of psychology creates a rationalized theory of personnel selection and certifies personnel professionals. Personnel departments and functionaries appear in all sorts of extant organizations, and new specialized personnel agencies also appear.As programs of research and development are created and professionals with expertise in these fields are trained and defined, organizations come under increasing pressure to incorporate R & D units. As the prerational profession of prostitution is rationalized along medical lines, bureaucratized organizations-sex-therapy clinics, massage parlors, and the like-spring up more easily. As the issues of safety and environmental pollution arise, and as relevant 344 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony i a b professions nd programs ecomeinstitutionalizedn laws, unionideologies, t nd public opinion,organizationsncorporate hese programsand profesi sions. The growth of rationalized institutional structures in society makes formal organizations more common and more elaborate. Such institutions are myths which make formal organizationsboth easier to create and more necessary. After all, the building blocks for organizationscome to be littered around the societal landscape; it takes only a little entrepreneurialenergy to assemble them into a structure. And because these building blocks are considered proper, adequate, rational, and necessary, organizations must incorporate them to avoid illegitimacy.Thus, the myths built into rationalized institutional elements create the necessity, the opportunity, and the impulse to organize rationally, over and above pressures in this direction created by the need to manage proximate relational n etworks: Proposition 1. As rationalizedinstitutionalrules arise in given domains of f work activity,formal organizations orm and expand by incorporatingthese rules as structuralelements. Two distinct ideas are implied here: (1A) As institutionalized myths define new domains of rationalized activity, formal organizationsemerge in these domains. iB) As rationalizing institutional myths arise in existing domains of activity, extant organizationsexpand their formal structures so as to become isomorphicwith these new myths. To understandthe largerhistorical process it is useful to note that: Proposition 2. The more modernizedthe society, the more extendedthe i rationalizedinstitutionalstructure n given domainsand the greaterthe number of domainscontainingrationalizedinstitutions. Modern institutions, then, are thoroughly rationalized, and these rationalized elements act as myths giving rise to more formal organization.When propositions 1 and 2 are combined, two more specific ideas follow : (2A) Formalorganizationsare more likely to emergein more modernizedsocieties, even with the complexity of immediate relational networks held constant. (2B) Formal organizationsin a given domain of activity are likely to have more elaborated structures in more modernized societies, even with the complexity of immediate relational networks held constant. Combiningthe ideas above with prevailingorganizationtheory, it becomes clear that modern societies are filled with rationalizedbureaucraciesfor two reasons. First, as the prevailing theories have asserted, relational etworks become increasingly complex as societies modernize. Second, modern societies are filled with institutional rules which function as myths depicting various formal structures as rational means to the attainment of desirable ends. Figure 1 summarizes these two lines of theory. Both lines suggest that the postindustrial society-the society dominated by rational organization even more than by the forces of production -arises both out of the 345 American Journal of Sociology The prevalence of rationalized institutional elements The presence and elaboration of formal organizational structures Societal Societal odernization The complexity of networks of social organization and exchange FIG. 1. -The origins and elaboration of formal organizational structures complexity of the modern social organizationalnetwork and, more directly, as an ideologicalmatter. Once institutionalized, rationality becomes a myth with explosive organizingpotential, as both Ellul (1964) and Bell (1973)though with rather different reactions-observe. The Relation of Organizationsto Their Institutional Environments The observationis not new that organizationsare structuredby phenomena in their environments and tend to become isomorphic with them.One explanation of such isomorphism is that formal organizations become matched with their environmentsby technical and exchange interdependencies. This line of reasoning can be seen in the works of Aiken and Hage (1968), Hawley (1968), and Thompson (1967). This explanation asserts that structural elements diffuse because environments create boundary-spanning exigencies for organizations, and that organizations which incorporate structural elements isomorphic with the environment are able to manage such interdependencies.A second explanation for the parallelismbetween organizations and their environments-and the one emphasized here-is that organizations structurally reflect socially constructed reality (Berger and Luckmann 1967). This view is suggested in the work of Parsons (1956) and Udy (1970), who see organizations as greatly conditioned by their general institutional environments and therefore as institutions themselves in part. Emery and Trist (1965) also see organizations as responding directly to environmental structuresand distinguishsuch effects sharply from those that occur through boundary-spanningexchanges.According to the institutional conception as developed here, organizations tend to disappear as distinct and bounded units. Quite beyond the environmental interrelations suggested in opensystems theories, institutional theories in their extreme forms define organizations as dramatic enactments of the rationalizedmyths pervading modern societies, rather than as units involved in exchange-no matter how complex-with their environments. 346 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony The two explanations of environmental isomorphism are not entirely inconsistent.Organizations both deal with their environments at their boundariesand imitate environmentalelements in their structures. However, the two lines of explanation have very different implications for internal organizationalprocesses, as will be argued below. The Origins of Rational Institutional Myths Bureaucratization is caused in part by the proliferation of rationalized myths in society, and this in turn involves the evolution of the whole modern institutional system. Although t he latter topic is beyond the scope of this paper, three specific processes that generate rationalizedmyths of organizational structure can be noted.The elaboration f complexrelationalnetworks. -As the relational networks o in societies become dense and interconnected, increasing numbers of rationalized myths arise. Some of them are highly generalized:for example, the principlesof universalism (Parsons 1971), contracts (Spencer 1897), restitution (Durkheim 1933), and expertise (Weber 1947) are generalizedto diverse occupations, organizational programs, and organizational practices. Other myths describespecificstructuralelements. These myths may originatefrom narrow contexts and be applied in different ones.For example, in modern societies the relational contexts of business organizationsin a single industry are roughly similarfrom place to place. Under these conditions a particularly effective practice, occupationalspecialty, or principle of coordinationcan be codified into mythlike form. The laws, the educational and credentialing systems, and public opinion then make it necessary or advantageous for organizationsto incorporatethe new structures. The degree of collective organization of the environment. The myths generated by particular organizational practices and diffused through relational networks have legitimacy based on the supposition that they are rationally effective. But many myths also have official legitimacy based on legal mandates. Societies that, through nation building and state formation, have developed rational-legal orders are especially prone to give collective (legal) authority to institutions which legitimate particular organizational structures. The rise of centralized states and integrated nations means that organized agents of society assume jurisdiction over large numbers of activity domains (Swanson 1971).Legislative and judicial authorities create and interpret legal mandates; administrative agencies-such as state and federal gover nments, port authorities, and school districts-establish rules of practice; and licenses and credentials become necessary in order to practice occupations. The stronger the rational-legal order, the greater the extent to which rationalized rules and procedures and personnel become 347 American Journal of Sociology institutional requirements. New formal organizations emerge and extant organizationsacquire new structural elements. Leadershipeforts of local organizations. The rise of the state and the expansion of collective jurisdiction are often thought to result in domesticated organizations(Carlson1962) subject to high levels of goal displacement (Clark 1956; Selznick 1949; and Zald and Denton 1963). This view is misleading: organizations do often adapt to their institutional contexts, but they often play active roles in shaping those contexts (Dowling and Pfeffer 1975; Parsons 1956; Perrow 1970; Thompson 1967). Many organizations actively seek charters from collective authorities and manage to institutionalize their goals and structures in the rules of such authorities.Efforts to mold institutional environmentsproceed along two dimensions. First, powerful organizations force their immediate relational networks to adapt to their structures and relations. For instance, automobile producers help create demands for particular kinds of roads, transportation systems, and fuels that make automobiles virtual necessities; competitive forms of transportationhave to adapt to the existing relational context. But second, powerful organizations attempt to build their goals and proceduresdirectly into society as institutional rules.Automobile producers, for instance, attempt to create the standards in public opinion defining desirable cars, to influence legal standards defining satisfactory cars, to affect judicial rules defining cars adequate enough to avoid manufacturerliability, and to force agents of the collectivity to purchase only their cars. Rivals must then compet e both in social networks or markets and in contexts of institutional rules which are defined by extant organizations. In this fashion, given organizational forms perpetuate themselves by becoming institutionalized rules.For example: Schooladministrators ho createnew curricula r trainingprograms tw o a i tempt to validatethem as legitimateinnovationsn educationalheoryand t I t c governmental equirements. f they are successful, he new procedures an r o a be perpetuated s authoritatively equired r at least satisfactory. r w s a New departments ithinbusiness nterprises,uchas personnel, dvertise a ing, or research nddevelopment epartments, ttemptto professionalizey d a b t r c creating ulesof practiceandpersonnel ertificationhat areenforced y the b schools,prestigesystems,and the laws. Organizations nder attack in competitiveenvironments-smallfarms, a o passenger ailways, r RollsRoyce-attempt to establishthemselves s cenr tral to the culturaltraditionsof their societiesin orderto receiv eofficial protection. The Impact of Institutional Environments on Organizations Isomorphismwith environmentalinstitutions has some crucial consequences for organizations: (a) they incorporate elements which are legitimated externally, rather than in terms of efficiency; (b) they employ external or 348 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony eremonialassessment criteriato define the value of structuralelements; and (c) dependence on externally fixed institutions reduces turbulence and maintains stability. As a result, it is argued here, institutional isomorphism promotes the success and survival of organizations. Incorporatingexternally legitimated formal structures increases the commitment of internal participants and externalconstituents. And the use of externalassessmentcriteriathat is, moving toward the status in society of a subunit rather than an independent system-can enable an organization to remain successful by social definition, bufferingit from failure.Changingformalstructu res. -By designing a formal structure that adheres to the prescriptionsof myths in the institutional environment, an organization demonstrates that it is acting on collectively valued purposes in a proper and adequate manner (Dowling and Pfeffer 1975; Meyer and Rowan 1975). The incorporationof institutionalized elements provides an account (Scott and Lyman 1968) of its activities that protects the organizationfrom having its conduct questioned. The organization becomes, in a word, legitimate, and it uses its legitimacy to strengthen its support and secure its survival.From an institutional perspective, then, a most important aspect of isomorphism with environmental institutions is the evolution of organizational language. The labels of the organization chart as well as the vocabulary used to delineate organizational goals, procedures, and policies are analogous to the vocabularies of motive used to account for the activities of individuals (Blum and McHugh 1971; Mills 1940). Just as jealousy, anger, altruism, and love are myths that interpret and explain the actions of individuals, the myths of doctors, of accountants, or of the assembly line explain organizationalactivities.Thus, some can say that the engineerswill solve a specific problem or that the secretaries will perform certain tasks, without knowing who these engineers or secretarieswill be or exactly what they will do. Both the speaker and the listeners understandsuch statements to describehow certain responsibilitieswill be carried out. Vocabularies of structure which are isomorphic with institutional rules provide prudent, rational, and legitimate accounts. Organizationsdescribed in legitimated vocabulariesare assumedto be oriented to collectively defined, and often collectively mandated, ends. The myths of personnel ervices, for example, not only account for the rationality of employment practices but also indicate that personnel services are valuable to an organization. Employees, applicants, mana gers, trustees, and governmental agencies are predisposed to trust the hiring practices of organizations that follow legitimated procedures-such as equal opportunity programs, or personality testing-and they are morewilling to participate in or to fund such organizations. On the other hand, organizations that omit environmentally legitimated elements of structure or create unique structures lack acceptable 349 American Journal of Sociology egitimated accounts of their activities. Such organizationsare more vulnerable to claims that they are negligent, irrational, or unnecessary. Claims of this kind, whether made by internal participants, external constituents, or the government, can cause organizations to incur real costs. For example: With the rise of modernmedicalinstitutions,largeorganizationshat do t not arrange edical-careacilitiesfor theirworkers ometo be seenas neglim f c gent-by the workers, y managementactions,by insurers, y courtswhich b f b legallydefinenegligence, nd oft en by laws. The costs of illegitimacy n ina i urance remiums nd legalliabilitiesare very real. p a e Similarly, nvironmentalafetyinstitutions akeit important or organis m f zations to create formalsafety rules, safety departments, nd safety proa grams. No Smokingrules and signs, regardless f their enforcement, re o a necessary o avoidcharges f negligence nd to avoidthe extremeof illegitit o a mation:the closingof buildings y the state. b The rise of professionalizedconomicsmakesit useful for organizations e to incorporate roupsof economists nd econometric nalyses. Thoughno g a a one may read,understand, r believethem,econometric nalyseshelplegitio a ate the organization's lans in the eyes of investors,customers(as with p DefenseDepartmentcontractors), nd internalparticipants. uchanalyses a S can also providerationalaccountings fter failuresoccur:managers hose a w plans have failed can demonstrateo investors,stockholders, nd superiors t a that procedures ere prudentand that decisions were made by rational w means. Thus, rationalized institutions create myths of formal structure which shape organizations. Failure to incorporatethe proper elements of structure is negligent and irrational; the continued flow of support is threatened and internal dissidents are strengthened.At the same time, these myths present organizations with great opportunities for expansion. Affixing the right labels to activities can change them into valuable services and mobilize the commitments of internal participants and external constituents. Adopting external assessmentcriteria. -In institutionally elaborated environments organizations also become sensitive to, and employ, external criteria of worth. Such criteriainclude, for instance, such ceremonialawards as the Nobel Prize, endorsementsby important people, the standard prices of professionalsand consultants, or the prestige of programsor personnelin external social circles.For example, the conventions of modern accounting attempt to assign value to particular components of organizations on the basis of their contribution-through the organization's production function-to the goods and services the organization produces. But for many units-service departments, administrativesectors, and others-it is utterly unclear what is being produced that has clear or definablevalue in terms of its contribution to the organizationalproduct. In these situations, ccountants employ shadow prices: they assume that given organizational units are necessaryand calculate their value from their prices in the world outside the organization. Thus modern accounting creates ceremonial production 350 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony functions and maps them onto economicproductionfunctions: organizations assign externally defined worth to advertising departments, safety departments, managers, econometricians, and occasionally even sociologists, whether or not these units contribute measurably to the production of outputs.Monetary price s, in postindustrial society, reflect hosts of ceremonial influences,as do economic measuresof efficiency,profitability, or net worth (Hirsch 1975). Ceremonialcriteria of worth and ceremonially derived production functions are useful to organizations:they legitimate organizationswith internal participants, stockholders,the public, and the state, as with the IRS or the SEC. They demonstrate socially the fitness of an organization.The incorporationof structureswith high ceremonialvalue, such as those reflecting the latest expert thinking or those with the most prestige, makes the credit position of an organizationmore favorable. Loans, donations, or investments are more easily obtained. Finally, units within the organization use ceremonial assessments as accounts of their productive service to the organization. Their internal power rises with their performance on ceremonial measures (Salancik and Pfeffer 1974). Stabilization. -The rise of an elaborateinstitutional environment stabiliz es both external and internal organizational relationships.Centralized states, trade association, unions, professional associations, and coalitions among organizationsstandardize and stabilize (see the review by Starbuck 1976). Market conditions, the characteristics of inputs and outputs, and technological procedures are brought under the jurisdiction of institutional meanings and controls. Stabilization also results as a given organization becomes part of the wider collective system. Support is guaranteed by agreements instead of depending entirely on performance. For example, apart rom whether schools educate students, or hospitals cure patients, people and governmental agencies remain committed to these organizations, funding and using them almost automatically year after year. Institutionally controlled environments buffer organizations from turbulence (Emery and Trist 1965; Terreberry 1968). Adaptations occur less rapidly as increased numbers of agreements are enacted. Collecti vely granted monopolies guarantee clienteles for organizations like schools, hospitals, or professional associations.The taken-for-granted (and legally regulated) quality of institutional rules makes dramatic instabilities in products, techniques, or policies unlikely. And legitimacy as accepted subunits of society protects organizationsfrom immediate sanctions for variations in technical performance: Thus,American chooldistricts(likeothergovernmental nits) have near s u monopolies nd are very stable. They must conformto widerrules about a o a properclassifications nd credentials f teachers nd students,and of topics a of study. But they are protectedby ruleswhichmakeeducationas defined 351American Journal of Sociology by these classifications compulsory. Alternative or private schools are possible, but must conform so closely to the required structures and classifications as to be able to generate little advantage. Some business organizations obtain very high levels of institutional stabilization. A large defense contractor may be paid for following agreed-on procedures, even if the product is ineffective. In the extreme, such organizations may be so successful as to survive bankruptcy intact-as Lockheed and Penn Central have done-by becoming partially components of the state.More commonly, such firms are guaranteed survival by state-regulated rates which secure profits regardless of costs, as with American public utility firms. Large automobile firms are a little less stabilized. They exist in an environment that contains enough structures to make automobiles, as conventionally defined, virtual necessities. But still, customers and governments can inspect each automobile and can evaluate and even legally discredit it. Legal action cannot as easily discredit a high school graduate. Organizational success and survival. Thus, organizational success depends on factors other than efficient coordination and control of productive activities. Independent of their pro ductive efficiency, organizations which exist in highly elaborated institutional environments and succeed in becoming isomorphic with these environments gain the legitimacy and resources needed to survive. In part, this depends on environmental processes and on the capacity of given organizational leadership to mold these processes (Hirsch 1975). In part, it depends on the ability of given organizations to conform to, and become legitimated by, environmental institutions.In institutionally elaborated environments, sagacious conformity is required: leadership (in a university, a hospital, or a business) requires an understanding of changing fashions and governmental programs. But this kind of conformity-and the almost guaranteed survival which may accompany itis possible only in an environment with a highly institutionalized structure. In such a context an organization can be locked into isomorphism, ceremonially reflecting the institutional environment in its structure, functionarie s, and procedures.Thus, in addition to the conventionally defined sources of organizational success and survival, the following general assertion can be proposed: Proposition 3. Organizationsthat incorporatesocietally legitimatedrationalized elements in their formal structuresmaximize their legitimacy and a increasetheir resources nd survivalcapabilities. This proposition asserts that the long-run survival prospects of organizations increase as state structures elaborate and as organizations respond to institutionalized rules.In the United States, for instance, schools, hospitals, and welfare organizations show considerable ability to survive, precisely because they are matched with-and almost absorbed by-their institutional environments. In the same way, organizations fail when they deviate 352 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony from the prescriptionsof institutionalizingmyths: quite apart from technical efficiency, organizations which innovate in important structural ways bear considerablecosts in legitimacy.Figure 2 summarizes the general argument of this section, alongside the established view that organizationssucceed through efficiency. INSTITUTIONALIZED STRUCTURES AND ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES Rationalized formal structures arise in two contexts. First, the demands of local relational networks encourage the development of structures that coordinateand control activities. Such structurescontribute to the efficiency of organizations and give them competitive advantages over less efficient competitors.Second, the interconnectedness of societal relations, the collective organizationof society, and the leadershipof organizationalelites create a highly institutionalized context. In this context rationalized structures present an acceptable account of organizationalactivities, and organizations gain legitimacy, stability, and resources. All organizations, to one degree or another, are embedded in both relational and institutionalized contexts and are theref ore concernedboth with coordinatingand controlling their activities and with prudently accounting for them.Organizations in highly institutionalized environments face internal and boundary-spanning contingencies. Schools, for example, must transport students to and from school under some circumstancesand must assign teachers, students, and topics to classrooms. On the other hand, organizations producing in markets that place great emphasis on efficiency build in units whose relation to production is obscure and whose efficiency is determined, not by a true production function, but by ceremonialdefinition.Nevertheless, the survival of some organizationsdepends more on managing the demands of internal and boundary-spanningrelations, while the survival of others depends more on the ceremonial demands of highly institutionalized environments. The discussion to follow shows that whether an organization'ssurvival dependsprimarilyon relationalor on institutional demands determines the tigh tness of alignments between structures and activities. Elaboration institutional of rationalized myths Organizational conformity with institutional myths Legitimacy and resources Organizational Survival fficiency FIG. 2. -Organizational survival 353 American Journal of Sociology Types of Organizations Institutionalized myths differ in the completenesswith which they describe cause and effect relationships, and in the clarity with which they describe standards that should be used to evaluate outputs (Thompson 1967). Some organizations use routine, clearly defined technologies to produce outputs. When output can be easily evaluated a market often develops, and consumers gain considerable rights of inspection and control. In this context, efficiency often determines success.Organizations must face exigencies of close coordinationwith their relational networks, and they cope with these exigencies by organizing around immediate technical problems. But the rise of collectively organized s ociety and the increasing interconnectedness of social relations have eroded many market contexts. Increasingly, such organizations as schools, R & D units, and governmental bureaucraciesuse variable, ambiguous technologies to produce outputs that are difficult to appraise, and other organizations with clearly defined technologies find themselves unable to adapt to environmental turbulence.The uncertainties of unpredictable technical contingencies or of adapting to environmental change cannot be resolved on the basis of efficiency. Internal participants and external constituents alike call for institutionalized rules that promote trust and confidencein outputs and buffer organizationsfrom failure (Emery and Trist 1965). Thus, one can conceive of a continuum along which organizationscan be ordered. At one end are production organizations under strong output controls (Ouchi and McGuire 1975) whose success depends on the management of relational networks.At the other end are institutio nalized organizations whose success depends on the confidence and stability achieved by isomorphism with institutional rules. For two reasons it is important not to assume that an organization'slocation on this continuum is based on the inherent technical properties of its output and therefore permanent. First, the technical properties of outputs are socially defined and do not exist in some concrete sense that allows them to be empirically discovered. Second, environments and organizations often redefine the nature of products, services, and technologies.Redefinition sometimes clarifies techniques or evaluative standards. But often organizations and environments redefine the nature of techniques and output so that ambiguity is introduced and rights of inspection and control are lowered. For example, Americanschools have evolved from producing rather specific training that was evaluated according to strict criteria of efficiency to producing ambiguously defined services that are eva luated according to criteria of certification (Callahan 1962; Tyack 1974; Meyer and Rowan 1975). 354Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony Structural Inconsistencies in Institutionalized Organizations Two very general problems face an organization if its success depends primarily on isomorphism with institutionalized rules. First, technical activities and demands for efficiency create conflicts and inconsistencies in an institutionalized organization'sefforts to conform to the ceremonialrules of production. Second, because these ceremonial rules are transmitted by myths that may arise from differentparts of the environment, the rules may conflict with one another.These inconsistenciesmake a concernfor efficiency and tight coordination and control problematic. Formal structures that celebrate institutionalized myths differ from structures that act efficiently. Ceremonialactivity is significant in relation to categorical rules, not in its concrete effects (Merton 1940; March and Simon 1958). A sick worker must be treated by a doctor using accepted medical procedures; whether the worker is treated effectively is less important. A bus company must service required routes whether or not there are many passengers.A university must maintain appropriatedepartments independently of the departments' enrollments. Activity, that is, has ritual significance:it maintains appearancesand validates an organization. Categoricalrules conflict with the logic of efficiency. Organizationsoften face the dilemma that activities celebratinginstitutionalized rules, although they count as virtuous ceremonial expenditures, are pure costs from the point of view of efficiency. For example, hiring a Nobel Prize winner brings great ceremonial benefits to a university. The celebrated name can lead to researchgrants, brighter students, or reputational gains.But from the point of view of immediate outcomes, the expenditure lowers the instructional return per dollar expended and lowers the univer sity's ability to solve immediate logistical problems. Also, expensive technologies, which bring prestige to hospitals and business firms, may be simply excessive costs from the point of view of immediate production. Similarly,highly professionalized consultants who bring external blessings on an organization are often difficult to justify in terms of improved productivity, yet may be very important in maintaining internal and external legitimacy.Other conflicts between categorical rules and efficiency arise because institutional rules are couched at high levels of generalization (Durkheim 1933) whereas technical activities vary with specific, unstandardized, and possibly unique conditions. Because standardized ceremonial categories must confront technical variations and anomalies, the generalized rules of the institutional environment are often inappropriateto specific situations.A governmentally mandated curriculum may be inappropriate for the students at hand, a conventional medi cal treatment may make little sense given the characteristics of a patient, and federal safety inspectors may intolerably delay boundary-spanningexchanges. 355 American Journal of Sociology Yet another source of conflict between categorical rules and efficiency is the inconsistency among institutionalized elements. Institutional environments are often pluralistic (Udy 1970), and societies promulgate sharply inconsistent myths.As a result, organizationsin search of external support and stability incorporate all sorts of incompatible structural elements. Professions are incorporatedalthough they make overlapping jurisdictional claims. Programs are adopted which contend with each other for authority over a given domain. For instance, if one inquireswho decides what curricula will be taught in schools, any number of parties from the various governments down to individual teachers may say that they decide. In institutionalized organizations, then, concern with the efficiency of day-to-da y activities creates enormousuncertainties.Specificcontexts highlight the inadequacies of the prescriptionsof generalizedmyths, and inconsistent structural elements conflict over jurisdictional rights. Thus the organization must struggle to link the requirementsof ceremonialelements to technical activities and to link inconsistent ceremonialelements to each other. Resolving Inconsistencies There are four partial solutions to these inconsistencies. First, an organization can resist ceremonial requirements. But an organization that neglects ceremonialrequirementsand portrays itself as efficient may be unsuccessful in documenting its efficiency.Also, rejecting ceremonial requirements neglects an important source of resourcesand stability. Second, an organization can maintain rigid conformity to institutionalized prescriptions by cutting off external relations. Although such isolation upholds ceremonial requirements, internal participants and external constituents may soon become disill usioned with their inability to manage boundary-spanning exchanges. Institutionalized organizationsmust not only conform to myths but must also maintain the appearancethat the myths actually work. Third, an organization can cynically acknowledgethat its structure is inconsistent with work requirements.But this strategy denies the validity of institutionalized myths and sabotages the legitimacy of the organization. Fourth, an organization can promise reform. People may picture the present as unworkablebut the future as filled with promisingreformsof both structure and activity. But by defining the organization'svalid structure as lying in the future, this strategy makes the organization'scurrent structure illegitimate. Instead of relying on a partial solution, however, an organization can resolve conflicts between ceremonial rules and efficiency by employing two interrelated devices: decoupling and the logic of confidence.Decoupling. -Ideally, organizations built around efficiency at tempt to 356 Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony maintain close alignments between structures and activities. Conformity is enforced through inspection, output quality is continually monitored, the efficiencyof various units is evaluated, and the various goals are unified and coordinated. But a policy of close alignment in institutionalized organizations merely makes public a record of inefficiency and inconsistency. Institutionalized organizations protect their formal structures from evaluation on the basis of technical performance:inspection, valuation, and control of activities are minimized, and coordination,interdependence,and mutual adjustments among structural units are handled informally. Proposition 4. Because attempts to control and coordinate activities in institutionalizedorganizationslead to conflictsand loss of legitimacy,elements of structureare decoupledrom activitiesandfrom each other. f Some well-known properties of organizations illustrate the decoupling process : Activities are performed beyond the purview of managers. In particular, organizations actively encourageprofessionalism,and activities are delegated to professionals.Goals are made ambiguous or vacuous, and categorical ends are substituted for technical ends. Hospitals treat, not cure, patients. Schools produce students, not learning. In fact, data on technical performance are eliminated or renderedinvisible. Hospitals try to ignore information on cure rates, public services avoid data about effectiveness, and schools deemphasize measures of achievement. Integration is avoided, program implementation is neglected, and inspection and evaluation are ceremonialized. Human relations are made very important.The organization cannot formally coordinate activities because its formal rules, if applied, would generate inconsistencies. Therefore individuals are left to work out technical interdependencies informally. The ability to coordinate things in violation of the rules-that is, to get along with other people-is highly valued. The advantages of decoupling are clear. The assumption that formal structures are really working is buffered from the inconsistencies and anomalies involved in technical activities.Also, because integration is avoided disputes and conflicts are minimized, and an organization can mobilize support from a broader range of external constituents. Thus, decoupling enables organizations to maintain standardized, legitimating, formal structures while their activities vary in response to practical considerations. The organizationsin an industry tend to be similar in formal structure-reflecting their common institutional origins-but may show much diversity in actual practice. The logic of confidence nd goodfaith. -Despite the lack of coordination a nd control, decoupledorganizationsare not anarchies. Day-to-day activities proceed in an orderly fashion. What legitimates institutionalized organizations, enabling them to appear useful in spite of the lac k of technical valida357 American Journal of Sociology tion, is the confidenceand good faith of their internal participants and their external constituents. Considerations of face characterize ceremonial management (Goffman 1967). Confidence in structural elements is maintained through three practices-avoidance, discretion, and overlooking (Goffman 1967, pp. 1218).Avoidance and discretion are encouraged by decoupling autonomous subunits; overlooking anomalies is also quite common. Both internal participants and external constituents cooperate in these practices. Assuring that individual participants maintain face sustains confidencein the organization, and ultimately reinforcesconfidencein the myths that rationalizethe organization'sexistence. Delegation, professionalization,goal ambiguity, the elimination of output data, and maintenance of face are all mechanismsfor absorbinguncertainty while preserving the formal structure of the organization (March and Simon 1958).They contribute to a general aura of confidence within and outside the organization. Although the literature on informal organization often treats these practices as mechanisms for the achievement of deviant and subgroup purposes (Downs 1967), such treatment ignores a critical feature of organization life: effectively absorbing uncertainty and maintaining confidencerequirespeople to assume that everyone is acting in good faith. The assumption that things are as they seem, that employees and managers are performing their roles properly, allows an organization to perform its daily routines with a decoupled structure.Decoupling and maintenanceof face, in other words, are mechanismsthat maintain the assumptionthat people are acting in good faith. Professionalization is not merely a way of avoiding inspection-it binds both supervisors and subordinates to act in good faith. So in a smaller way does strategic leniency (Blau 1956). And so do the public displays of moraleand satisfaction which are characte ristic of many organizations. Organizations employ a host of mechanisms to dramatize the ritual commitments which their participants make to basic structural elements.These mechanisms are especially common in organizations which strongly reflect their institutionalized environments. 5 Proposition . The morean organization'sstructureis derivedrom instituf tionalizedmyths,themoreit maintains elaborate isplays of confidence, atisfacs d tion, and goodfaith, internallyand externally. The commitments built up by displays of morale and satisfaction are not simply vacuous affirmations of institutionalized myths. Participants not only commit themselves to supporting an organization'sceremonial facade but also commit themselves to making things work out backstage.The committed participants engage in informal coordination that, although often formally inappropriate, keeps technical activities running smoothly I and avoids public embarrassments. n this sense the confidenceand good faith 358 For mal Structure as Myth and Ceremony generated by ceremonial action is in no way fraudulent. It may even be the most reasonableway to get participants to make their best efforts in situations that are made problematic by institutionalized myths that are at odds with immediate technical demands.Ceremonial inspection and evaluation. -All organizations,even those maintaining high levels of confidence and good faith, are in environments that have institutionalized the rationalizedrituals of inspection and evaluation. And inspection and evaluation can uncover events and deviations that undermine legitimacy. So institutionalized organizations minimize and ceremonializeinspection and evaluation. In institutionalized organizations, in fact, evaluation accompanies and produces illegitimacy.The interest in evaluation research by the American federal government, for instance, is partly intended to undercut the state, local, and private authorities which have managed social services in the United States. The federal authorities, of course, have usually not evaluated those programswhich are completely under federal jurisdiction; they have only evaluated those over which federal controls are incomplete. Similarly, state governments have often insisted on evaluating the special fundings they create in welfare and education but ordinarily do not evaluate the programswhich they fund in a routine way.Evaluation and inspection are public assertions of societal control which violate the assumption that everyone is acting with competence and in good faith. Violating this assumption lowers morale and confidence. Thus, evaluation and inspection undermine the ceremonial aspects of organizations. 6 Proposition . Institutionalizedorganizationsseek to minimize inspection and evaluationby bothinternalmanagersand externalconstituents. Decoupling and the avoidance of inspection and evaluation are not merely devices used by the organization.External constituents, too, avoid inspecting and con trolling institutionalized organizations (Meyer and Rowan 1975). Accreditingagencies, boards of trustees, government agencies, and individuals accept ceremoniallyat face value the credentials,ambiguous goals, and categorical evaluations that are characteristic of ceremonial organizations. In elaborate institutional environments these external constituents are themselves likely to be corporately organized agents of society.Maintaining categorical relationships with their organizational subunits is more stable and more certain than is relying on inspection and control. Figure 3 summarizesthe main argumentsof this section of our discussion. SUMMARY AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS Organizational structures are created and made more elaborate with the rise of institutionalized myths, and, in highly institutionalized contexts, 359 American Journal of Sociology of structural The decoupling and from each other subunits from activity Isomor phism with an elaborated institutional environment â€⠀œ Rituals of ood faith The avoidance and effective FIG. 3. -The confidence and of inspection evaluation effects of institutional isomorphism on organizations organizationalaction must support these myths. But an organization must also attend to practical activity. The two requirementsare at odds. A stable solution is to maintain the organizationin a loosely coupled state. No position is taken here on the overall social effectiveness of isomorphic and loosely coupled organizations. To some extent such structures buffer activity from efficiency criteria and produce ineffectiveness.On the other hand, by bindingparticipants to act in good faith, and to adhere to the larger rationalities of the wider structure, they may maximize long-run effectiveness. It should not be assumed that the creation of microscopicrationalities in the daily activity of workers effects social ends more efficiently than commitment to larger institutional claims and purposes. Research Implications The argumentpr esented here generates several major theses that have clear researchimplications. 1. Environmentsand environmentaldomainswhich have institutionalized a greater number of rational myths generate more formal organization.This thesis leads to the research hypothesis that formal organizations rise and become more complex as a result of the rise of the elaborated state and other institutions for collective action. This hypothesis should hold true even when economic and technical development are held constant. Studies could trace the diffusion to formal organizations of specific institutions: professions, clearly labeled programs, and the like. For instance, the effects of the rise of theories and professions of personnel selection on the creation of personnel departments in organizations could be studied.Other studies could follow the diffusion of sales departments or researchand development departments. Organizationsshould be found to adapt to such environmental changes, even if no evid ence of their effectiveness exists. Experimentally, one could study the impact on the decisions of organizational managers, in planning or altering organizationalstructures, of hypothetical variations in environmentalinstitutionalization. Do managersplan differentlyif they are informedabout the existence of establishedoccupations or prog